The Ethics of Cognitive Enhancement - 1312 Words

Achievement is valued highly in our society. Coaches want their players to give 110 percent, professors encourage their students to study harder, and parents want to see their children become the best person they can be. Not only do we want to keep up with the Joneses, we want to surpass them. In the pursuit of excellence, some people will take drugs as an enhancement for their cognitive abilities. What makes this path to excellence ethically questionable? There are two large issues to using cognitive enhancements: fairness and the pressure to use them. While there may be nothing intrinsically wrong with using cognitive enhancers, the use of these drugs will likely have major side-effects on society which need to be taken into†¦show more content†¦This, which Carl Elliot calls the problem of â€Å"relative ends†, would lead to many hard-working, honest people not being considered normal anymore. Performance enhancers, such as steroids or human growth hormone, ma ke sports less entertaining for everyone. An athlete that uses enhancers that are illegal for normal people gains an unfair advantage over the other athletes who do not use enhancers. The respect is lost for the athlete who cheats by using enhancers. Was it Barry Bonds who hit 762 homeruns over his career or was it the steroids? Should we admire someone who finds a way to increase performance in a way that is condemned by most people? I know I wouldnt be as proud of an achievement if it was drug enhanced. I would see myself as a cheater and wonder if my success was because of the drug and not me. It seems as if an athlete on performance enhancing drugs goes from being well-liked and a role model to being despised by most once they are caught using the drug. If they are never caught or nobody knows about their use of enhancers, all is well for the athlete, the sport, and the fans. Other athletes do not want to see their competitors using this unfair advantage because it makes them look inferior comparatively. Sports fans also do not want to see someone succeed that cheats by using enhancers. They want to see someone who works hard and earns what they are trying to accomplish.Show MoreRelatedRise Of The Metahum Should We Enhance?1380 Words   |  6 Pagesfor what s to come, and is humanity ready? Before we answer this question, we need to narrow the parameters of what we mean by human enhancement. Human enhancement is anything we do to overcome our natural baseline abilities as a human being. (Allhoff, et al. 8) There are many things as humans that we currently do that are considered enhancement. Natural enhancement can be thought of as anything we do to improve ourselves that occurs in nature. This can include extra training for an athletic eventRead MoreThe Birth Mark By Nathaniel Hawthorne821 Words   |  4 Pagesour survival.† Evidence shows on how she reacted on the husband’s disapproval of the birthmark itself. The article in place discussing the topic of Cognitive Enhancement, the author name is Ross Andersen who will be interviewing a bioethicist on where do Cognitive Enhancement stands with the public and the medical possibility. Cognitive Enhancement is a similar term of enhancing abilities using natural resources, drugs, and technology. In the article, a team of ethicists from Oxford released a paperRead MoreContemporary Scientific Progression And Discourses1329 Words   |  6 Pagestheir underlying potential for not only treatment, but enhancement of our present biological state. Humanity has now reached a critical moment in its existence where the prospect of emerging biotechnologies presents us with unprecedented opportunities to radically transform human existence. Indeed, we can now begin to rationally examine the capacity in which such technologies can elevate the human condition by means of biological enhancement. Transhumanism represents one such ideology that embodiesRead MoreAcademic Ethical Dilemma: Learning Enhancement Through Chemistry1573 Words   |  7 PagesAcademic Ethical Dilemma: Learning Enhancement Through Chemistry There is a trend occurring in the academic world that is gaining in popularity and has many in the academic world worried. This trend is the increase use of drugs to enhance the brains ability to not only work harder, longer and faster but also to retain that knowledge. Doping is no longer the exclusive realm of sports professionals (Block,2003). Not only does this create opportunities for todays students to excel but itRead MoreNeuroethial Debate in Cognitive Enhancement593 Words   |  2 PagesNeuroethical Debate in Cognitive Enhancement Appearance is important in a increasingly consumerist society, Cognitive enhancement through cosmetic psychopharmacology is desirable, parallel to cosmetic surgery to enhance one’s appearance. Neurocognitive enhancers (e.g. nootropics, stimulants) are psychoactive medications that aim to extend the abilities of the human mind. Although these drugs are being developed for the primary purpose of treating neurological conditions like dementia, some ofRead MoreEthical Considerations For Memory Modification907 Words   |  4 PagesEternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind and other issues are discussed in the Nature article, US brain project puts focus on ethics. The Nature article does a good job in paragraph 3 of listing several different ethical concerns already; I’ll try my best not to regurgitate these concerns without further analysis here. In the Nature article, US brain project puts focus on ethics, there is a reference to the uneasiness felt by modifying memory because of a belief that people see memory as â€Å"the essenceRead MoreErving Goffman Stigma6568 Words   |  27 PagesGoodman †¢ CoGnitive enhanCement, CheatinG, and aCComplishment Rob Goodman Cognitive Enhancement, Cheating, and Accomplishment ABSTRACT. An ethics of enhancement should not rest on blanket judgments; it should ask us to distinguish between the kinds of activities we want to enhance. Both students and academics have turned to cognition-enhancing drugs in significant numbers—but is their enhancement a form of cheating? The answer should hinge on whether the activity subject to enhancement is zero-sumRead MoreGenetic Interventions And The Ethics Of Enhancement Of Human Beings Essay1588 Words   |  7 Pagesthis topic and presenting the argument for each one. Julian Savulescu wrote Genetic Interventions and the Ethics of Enhancement of Human Beings and in this article he clearly states his position on the issues as well as providing supporting and opposing sides to the matter. He starts off by explaining this issue is focused on biological enhancement and more specifically genetic enhancement. Then the thesis statement is provided, â€Å"I want to argue that, far from it’s being merely permissible, we haveRead MoreBehavior Regulations Such As Parenting Socialization, And Education1405 Words   |  6 Pagescan all be seen as forms of human enhancement in accordance to Harris. Harris makes the an important point in asking what moral enhancement has to do with ethical knowledge, if there is a thing as technological expertise and how all of these things relate to ethics and morality? It is very hard to determine what being good means. Harris also brings up a point mentioned previously by Persson and Savulescu, and mentions that one of the founders of moral enhancement have argued that will leave the personRead MoreThe Abuse Of Prescription Neuro Enhancers1168 Words   |  5 Pagesseen many students turn to prescription drugs so they can stay awake longer and increase their ability to focus. When caffeine and energy drinks no longer cut it, many students believe stimulants will improve their grades. I first learned of cognitive enhancement drugs (CEDs), such as Ritalin, Adderall, and Provigil, in high school as a secret advantage students would use during testing like the ACT. However, in college these CEDs are much more widely used, usually as recreational â€Å"study drugs,† due

Empathy in Tannen, Deborah. Cant We Talk, Hemingway,...

Empathy in Conversations Empathy is defined as â€Å"the understanding of another’s situation, feelings, and motives† as defined in the dictionary. Some tend to find it difficult to comprehend that a person could lack such thought and concern for another living being. For as long as some can recall, the capability to treat others with compassion has been second nature, and a vital part in my moral principles. Being challenged throughout their childhood, their compassionate character was not only improved, but, certainly, the toughest element in their moral groundwork. This being said, Good communication needs understanding between the people communicating as stated in Tannen, Deborah. Cant We Talk?†, Hemingway, Ernest. Hills Like White Elephants., and Turkle, Sherry. The Flight from Conversation†. In her book â€Å"Can’t We Talk† Deborah Tannen compares the manner of which males and females react to each other in diverse circumstances. Earl y in the reading she states that men are raised in a world in which a conversation is a competition that they should never loose, and women are taught to listen, confirm and offer support to other people. She supports this with when she stated that she saw it in her own husband when they worked in two different cities and how he â€Å"approached the world in a way to achieve and maintain status† (Tannen). Also, stated in the article, Tannen was talking about how ways to avoid fighting with their significant others, people tend to give in to

Stakeholder Analysis

Question: Discuss about theStakeholder Analysis. Answer: Synopsis A stakeholder analysis is defined as a procedure that would help in providing valuable inputs into developing an understanding about the communications between projects and their stakeholders (Nicole Kennon, 2009). It is very important in being able to manage the capital as well as human resources required in company projects as the ultimate success of any projects depends solely on the capability of satisfying the key expectations of the stakeholders and thus gaining their support. Hence, it is important to prioritize the stakeholders of a firm that as their contributions affects project success. The stakeholder analysis helps us in identifying the critical stakeholders so that the management can carry out engagement programs so that the network is maintained and nurtured. In this paper the authors presents a stakeholder analysis tool that would be beneficial in strategically look at different resources to deliver effective project goals. The paper first talks about the development of the tool and later discusses about how the tool can be improved as well as reassesses depending on requirements. Critique I think the author has addressed the importance that an organization or management should impart upon analysis and prioritizing their stakeholders very well. The stakeholders can be of two types, viz. influential stakeholders, those who can exert their power over the management of a company and important stakeholders, those who have the upper hand on the implementation of the project. Hence, the relative importance different types of stakeholders would exert on the success of a project should be taken into account considering many factors. The benefits being the opinions of the most important and powerful stakeholders help in materializing projects at a very basic stage and also helps in improving the quality(Alexander, 2000). Moreover, their support helps the organization in winning valuable resources and regular communication and networking would help the stakeholders be fully aware of the work process of the company, which is essential for winning their support. Reflection Moreover, I think that time is again one of the most important factors while implementing stakeholder analysis so that the company or the management can be assured of the complete usefulness of the process. Mostly, stakeholder analysis should be done before the reforms proposals are finalized. At initial stages, it helps in assessing the probability of sustainability of reforms or policies about any project. By implementing the analysis before the beginning of any project would help in tacking any obstacles and when implanted with conjunction with other beneficial tools, it can help in overcoming oppositions, building coalitions and provide resources in promoting the project. Bibliography Alexander, E., 2000. Rationality Revisited: Plamting Paradigms in a Post-Postmodernist Perspective. Journal of Planning Education and Resear, pp. pp24-2-56.. Nicole Kennon, P. H. a. M. H., 2009. Who really matters? A stakeholder analysis tool. Extension Farming Systems Journal, 5(2).

Women Review Essay Example

Women Review Paper Essay on Women Perhaps you could just put his assessment, to express the impression of the book and silently leave. Because in the internet the reviews mostly praise (which, by the way, and prompted to buy the book and read), and therefore, its just I do not understand, why do I need literature of this kind And yet, I am trying to find out. Why do I need literature? In school, we were told that reading, we learn to see the beauty, to express their thoughts, to feel other people become literate and intelligent. Something like this About Bukowski heard many good words. Like, his prose, and in particular stories is a delight, mixed on a combination of banter, originality, sincerity, and more, more, more The first novel, which was in the hands The Women. Frankness? Yes. Banter would have. Originality? Yes, what is it? Not a drop of beauty, a line that would want to remember, faceless heroes, women who are distinguished only by their names, and the thickness of the ankle, the sea and obscene vulgarity, alcohol, unpleasant and no unnecessary anatomical details, etc. etc. We will write a custom essay sample on Women Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Women Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Women Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer But, as a person with imagination and seeing in ink stained pictures, people without much hypocrisy in relation to the offensive, trying to throw a nasty, stinging tinsel and get to the meaning. The protagonist a writer at the age, fearing old age, alone and fearful at the same time, wishing to be free of everything, even of their fears. And so it is fighting against himself Through the women and alcohol. In fact, quite a sentimental story, hidden under a shocking naturalism. The story told a million times, a million ways. Maybe thats why the author told his story like this? Million the first way that I, alas, only pushed

Free Essays on Sound Of Music

Sounds of Music In music there are a variety of instruments that display the color of harmonies, when they are played in an orchestra or a band. The ranges of their sounds spans from the lowest pitch of a contrabass to the highest pitch of a piccolo. Moreover their classification derives by the group or section to which they belong. The classification of instruments in music is divided into three broad classes or families which are percussion, string and wind. Many instruments have more than one characteristic and fall into more than one class. The piano, for example, is a string instrument as well as a percussion instrument. Moreover in the group of percussion, the description of some of these instruments is very similar, since some of them consist of a drum shape. For example the typical description of any drum consist of a wooden cylinder that or hemispheres with calfskin stretched tightly one or both ends to form the head. In the performance of percussion instruments, there are several of them that are executed in two ways. For instance some of these instruments are played with the palms of the hands or by using wooden sticks. The procedure when playing with the palms of the hand is as follow: both hands tap or strike simultaneously the head of the drum. In order to produce a different sound at the same time, the performer places one hand on the calfskin of the drum while strikes it with the other. The strength of the strike depends on the type of dynamic the performer is using. A good example of this kind of instrument is the conga. The conga consist of a wooden cylinder that or hemispheres with calfskin that stretches tightly the ends of the cylinder to form the head. The tension of the head is control by rods and screws. The purpose of such tension is to produce different sounds or to tune the instrument. Another way of playing percussion instruments is by using wooden sticks. This is the case in th e drumset. The dr... Free Essays on Sound Of Music Free Essays on Sound Of Music Sounds of Music In music there are a variety of instruments that display the color of harmonies, when they are played in an orchestra or a band. The ranges of their sounds spans from the lowest pitch of a contrabass to the highest pitch of a piccolo. Moreover their classification derives by the group or section to which they belong. The classification of instruments in music is divided into three broad classes or families which are percussion, string and wind. Many instruments have more than one characteristic and fall into more than one class. The piano, for example, is a string instrument as well as a percussion instrument. Moreover in the group of percussion, the description of some of these instruments is very similar, since some of them consist of a drum shape. For example the typical description of any drum consist of a wooden cylinder that or hemispheres with calfskin stretched tightly one or both ends to form the head. In the performance of percussion instruments, there are several of them that are executed in two ways. For instance some of these instruments are played with the palms of the hands or by using wooden sticks. The procedure when playing with the palms of the hand is as follow: both hands tap or strike simultaneously the head of the drum. In order to produce a different sound at the same time, the performer places one hand on the calfskin of the drum while strikes it with the other. The strength of the strike depends on the type of dynamic the performer is using. A good example of this kind of instrument is the conga. The conga consist of a wooden cylinder that or hemispheres with calfskin that stretches tightly the ends of the cylinder to form the head. The tension of the head is control by rods and screws. The purpose of such tension is to produce different sounds or to tune the instrument. Another way of playing percussion instruments is by using wooden sticks. This is the case in th e drumset. The dr...

Free sample - Review Of Hitlers Germany. translation missing

Review Of Hitlers Germany. Review Of Hitler's GermanyIn April 1933, during the early months after the Nazis ascended to power in Germany, a law which commonly came to be termed as the Aryanan Paragraph came into effect. It outlawed any person of Jewish descent from government employment. This was the first piece of legislature to be effected in a then heightening assault on Jews led by the Third Reich Hitler and evidently expressed in his toxic rhetoric and ideological imperatives. This placed German Churches at a focal point: They either had to resist these attacks on Jews or dismiss all Jewish preachers and employees so as to preserve their subsidies. Most of the churches publicly or silently fell in line with Hitler’s demands. These in effect became the onset of the world’s bloodiest World War II and the context of Roderick Stackelberg’s book on Hitler’s Germany: Origins, Interpretations and Legacies which provide an interesting read and meets its chief objective of introducing a ny reader to the history and the atrocities committed in the Nazi Germany. The book extends from the abortive 1923 Beer Hall Putsch to the World War II and the aftermath in the 1940’s. This therefore gives Stackelberg’s novel a wide coverage while ensuring the reader is totally engrossed in the narrative as the story unfolds. Stackelberg , a humanities professor at Gonzaga University in Spokane, he cogently sets out to argue out that the Nazi Regime was supported and maintained through a mass consensus by the majority of the German citizens rather than the implied coercion by most authors. He is hence in agreement with Daniel Goldhagen and his views as phrased in his narrative, Hitler's Willing Executioners of which he has recognized and praised. He points out that Germans expressed conviction and expediency in their support and collaboration with the Nazi regime. He endeavors to balance ‘intentionalist’ versus ‘functionalist’ approaches to th e Holocaust committed against Jews so as to amply show the Nazi’s adherence to the fatal eugenic belief of exterminating all those deemed to be "life unworthy of life". This resulted in the death of two-thirds of the Jews in Europe at the time. Stackelberg successfully combines dramatic writing with a dispassionate analysis so as to aptly provide a rich historical context the barbaric behavior and actions of the Third Reich by boldly depicting a pre-history of Nazism such as the absolutist rule put forward by his predecessor Otto Van Bismarck, the 19th-century nationalist propagandistsand the Free Corps hooligan squads who not only crushed the 1919 Spartacist revolt but also murdered Rosa Luxemburg. He further covers the Nuremberg trials, the German denazification and the modern-day resurgence of militant neo-Nazi extremists. Although the work presented herein has already been documented in other books, he manages to author an interesting and engrossing superb read on the Naz i Germany history. The book first provides a detailed coverage of the roots of fascist ideologies, its constituency and the conditions that facilitated its growth in Germany. It then reflects on the key problems facing German unity which Stackelberg clearly and comprehensively covers as absolutism and particularism. This serves as a basis as to why the German Empire changed from a democratic state to social imperialism and finally landed on the path to war. Stackelberg clinically examines the Germanic ideology that was instituted into the masses by the political class so as to influence support. He finds that the politicians managed to drive the cause for nationalism towards fanatism while coupling this with vulgarized idealism and anti-Semitism.   Stackelberg has also provided a rich context for German’s history and involvement in the First World War and the resultant crisis in imperial Germany under Bismarck. He goes on further to examine the Weimar Republic through a well-documented study a nd the weakness of liberal democracy in Germany. This led to the consequent fall of the Weimar republic and the rise of Nazism further facilitated by the Great Depression. The Nazis managed to consolidate power in the 1933-1934 under the Third Reich Hitler whose governance in the 1933-1939 period has been fully analyzed under the aspects of politics, society and culture hence providing a rich and diverse read. Further, Stackelberg manages to depict hideous details of the persecution of the Jews and the Holocaust in this period. The origins of the Second World War, its spread from a European to a global war and its ensuing transformation from triumph to defeat in 1942-1945 have been elaborately covered while providing ample contextual information that leaves a clear imaginative image in the readers’ minds. Finally, the book evaluates the aftermath of the war and Germany’s National Socialism. The last chapter examines Hitler’s place in history and memory and the v ital lessons learnt from the ordeal. In the introduction, Stackelberg clarifies why he wrote the book despite a myriad number of historical books in the market dealing with a similar subject matter. He feels there is a need to write a book that not only covers the Nazi regime but also the 19th century background and the aftermath. Despite the book’s title, only seven out of sixteen chapters are dedicated to the Nazi regime. It provides a rich and essential understanding of the Hitler-led Nazi regime. This was a decision he reached at after having taught the subject matter for over twenty years. Stackelberg feels that the book approaches the Nazi regime under a two dimension: He provides an accurate and complete account of Nazi rule and goes further to provide an interpretive framework that endeavors to explore the reasons as to the extraordinary occurrence in German history. The book provides a clear guideline to the reader whereas incorporating the complex and vast complexities of historical causation as experie nced by the contemporary figures that lived in that turbulent and violent era. In creating a rich analysis and reconstruction of the Nazi regime in 1933 to 1945, the author places the period in a larger context which enables him to ably provide a sufficient background of the regime while ensuring various critical arguments are brought forward. First, Stackelberg feels that history is inseparable from its interpretative analysis. No author, in Stackelberg’s view should present the bare facts of a historical occurrence without endeavoring to provide a parallel interpretive theory as to why the historical phenomenon took place. Historical books and journals have always depicted the Nazi era under a barbaric and destructive scope and it is almost viewed entirely as the world’s greatest battle of evil versus good. This approach is rather heightened by the atrocities committed such as the irrational racial obsessions and the Holocaust with an aim to wipe out all Jews. Any other approach, such as a metaphysical approach, would definitely not successfully account for the success and popularity of Nazism in Germany. However, rather than approach the Nazi era under a moral and evil conception as multiple authors’ have, Stackelberg endeavors to define the rise of the Nazi regime under a political analysis. Stacke lberg feels it is essential to establish why the Germans at the time felt that Nazism was a reconstructive force in the quest for National Socialism that would utterly propel them into a superpower state. He critically notes in a catchy headline that history is past politics, hence, even the atrocities committed under the anti-Semitism derive must have a cognitive understanding. Unlike facts which if in dispute can easily be ratified among historians, an analysis of the reasons as to why German Nazism was widely popular can only be perceived under the analysts own political and societal values. These are highly diverse among historians and are therefore bound to bring forth a degree of controversy. In a review of egalitarian governments, Stackelberg depicts how left-wing movements can easily gain popularity through â€Å"championing for emancipation from oppressive governments whereas the right-wing lobbyists defend traditional and hierarchical governments.† The left extremists can effortlessly apply authority in the running of governments so as to create egalitarian societies as depicted by the 21st century communist governments. The conservatives in the right wing endeavor to create liberal societies through curtailing government power and promotion of individual freedom. In this book, Stackelberg addresses this contemporary left-right spectacle in their respective egalitarian perspectives by a case scenario of American politics. American conservatives have been documented as in opposition of powerful governments bringing them closer to the left’s camp but with absolutely diverse goals which are the key to any government. In their campaign against the powerful g overnment and their defense for laissez-faire, American conservatives have been found to depict similar traits to those of 19th century conservatives in continental Europe and the Nazis’ fascism. In America, the highly liberal society either leans on personal freedom or social equality. The leftists rather lean on social equality while the right conservatives opt for freedom. Stackelberg further provides a distinction between moderates and extremists in which extremists are rather authoritative, prejudiced and inclined towards violence, deception and collectivism across the left-right extremists. They are intolerant of any opposition or deviations from the ideal entailed by freedom and seek to forcefully impose these ideals on individuals. Communism bordered on the left while fascism was composed of right extremist. However, most authors, with the exception of the well-sourced Stackelberg’s book, feel that communism and fascism are inherently related which a critical e valuation in Hitler’s Germany depicts that they are fundamental opposites. While communism mainly appealed to workers who owned minimal properties due to its enhancement of a greater degree of equality, fascism mainly appealed to the middle class and propertied workers who felt that they would in essence lose from the implementation of egalitarian principles. Therefore, proponents of each group were arch enemies since communism maltreated the higher and mighty classes while fascism greatly victimized the â€Å"lower races† and poor classes of humanity. In exploring the causative force behind the Fascism variant Nazism, Stackelberg examines counter-revolutionary concepts in contrast to revolutionary concepts in his apt and wide description of the Hitler Regime. He feels that in contrast to neo-conservatism in the United States, fascism in Germany is much related to the traditional continental Europe conservatism though it has some anti-conservative features. Multiple radical methods were adopted into German Nazism from the practices of its arch foe, communism such as mass mobilization techniques, violence and propaganda. This was a highly critical countermeasure identified by Stackelberg in which the Nazis used the tactics employed by the left against the left. Counter-revolutionary concepts however did not characterize the left-right distinction as much as the core goal of preventing equality much agitated for by the left by a vehement denial of its existence through the structure governing various races and their coexistence. In t his book therefore, Stackelberg finds it crucial that most historians have neglected the fact that these ruthless and radical measures were put in place to counter socialism by purported National Socialists through the eradication of the significant proportion of production contributed by private property. Stackelberg therefore feels that the term socialist has been misused since the party was not true to the doctrines it purported to support and further. Hence, he feels that the Nazis were counter-revolutionary since it endeavored to curb developments in the transformation of the property sector while upholding the Puritist nature of the fascist regime. This book also makes a very interesting and engrossing read since it answers the contentious question on the relationship between fascism and Nazism and their relation to other political movements of the past centuries. It further answers the crucial questions on how Nazism managed to ascend to power in such a civilized, industrialized and urbanized context. In a well-analyzed and well-sourced background study, Stackelberg examines the rise in popularity of Nazism by interpreting it basing heavily on the Sonderweg thesis. This is categorically analyzed in chapter 2 whereby the variation in the development of democracy in Germany was remarkably different from other European nations. Most authors have neglected to write a detailed account of the pre-Hitler administrations which would otherwise provide vital historical clues to the rise of Nazism. This is utterly reflected in the book. However, Stackelberg expresses caution that a study to chiefly analyze pre-Nazi Germany in the 19th ce ntury as a pure preliminary stage to the Nazi regime and its aftermath would not only be a narrow-minded approach but also historically inadequate and unjustifiable. Although Stackelberg feels that greater and much more vital events such as Russian Bolshevik Revolution, the defeat in the First World War and the conflict of political interests in the Weimar Republic provide a crucial basis for evaluation of Nazism, the lack of the development of democracy can partially be attributed to Nazism. Finally, Stackelberg furthers debate as to whether Nazism is a modernizing or anti-modern debate. At the time, Germany’s economy was at its peak but the inability of political liberalization and democracy to keep pace with the advances in technology led to a flaw in its development hence depicting a rejection of modernity. This point of analysis as put forward by Stackelberg is further supported by the Sonderweg thesis whereby major evidence of anti-modernity such as â€Å"blood and soil† ideology that depicts a German-only agrarian culture under threat of urbanization and the resultant industrialization. This was in effect promoting capitalism whereby the Jews were viewed as the major beneficiaries at the expense of the former chief producers, the Mittelstand. However, Stackelberg also evaluates Nazism as a facilitator of modernity through the implementation of advanced technology in the military during World War II. Though this is highly complemented by pioneer studie s in space technology, the rejection of Jewry physics in the development of nuclear weapons further served as a major factor in deterring modernism. Stackelberg has used a wide variety of sources that span from The German Empire, ideologies, the First World War, the Weimar Republic and its collapse, the Nazi consolidation of power, the society, culture and politics during Hitler’s rule, the Holocaust and the anti-Semitism, the Second World War, the Aftermath and the modernity debate. For instance, it is crucial to note on Stackelberg’s reference to Taylor’s famous and controversial book, The origins of the Second World War in which he strongly criticizes The failure of the British to conclusively put in place a pact with the then Soviet Union so as to put an end to the war. The sources used herein in this book are highly relevant and serve in meeting the objective of the book. It gives this work a high credential. Further, Stackelberg has written the sources in a well-organized and presentable manner depicting that the book was written after a conducting a research for a period of twenty years during which he was teaching a similar course. This therefore enables Stackelberg to write an objective, chronological account and a must-read book that not only expands on Hitler’s Germany, but also on the 19th century pre-Nazi period and the 20th Century post-war period and the aftermath. This serves to give the book an edge over other historical books written at the time. (Stackelberg, 1999) Reference Stackelberg, R. (1999). Hitler's Germany: origins, interpretations, legacies. Routledge Press.

Initial Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Initial Market - Essay Example The latter poses the most difficult challenge as it requires creativity and a real close look at what consumers want. One issue that can be addressed is the combination packaging of products for the 1 million male cigar and cigarette customers who use both products. We can obtain some information from this segment in terms of cigar to cigarette use ratios, to provide the most desirable product combination. Branding efforts of cigarette products should continue to focus on the retailers who will likely sell higher volumes of product. Data from each retailer and customers who purchased our cigarette brand have disclosed the amount of sales volume we can expect at each location. Survey research efforts have provided information regarding target segments. In addition to the 1 million male cigar/cigarette smokers, the 10 million smokers in Britain come from all geographic regions, with highest concentrations in urban areas. The largest age group is 18-34, almost equally male and female, w ith construction, production and service jobs being the most reported occupations. Though many in the 35-55 age group have ceased to purchase tobacco products, this segment still contains a significant portion of cigarette consumers, as the largest segment of the general population. population. For the youngest age group cost and convenience are the main reasons for selecting brand, though recognition is another important factor as well. This group selects brand products based on exposure or influence. As peers share products and discuss products they expose others to product brands. Promotional activities for this age group should include referral bonuses and similar programs. Registration cards are sent or given to consumers who have already provided survey information. Three detachable coupons are given to friends so they can go to a retail location for a free pack of cigarettes. The customer is also entitled to one free pack for their efforts. Such activities will help to increase brand awareness. Our brand should be priced just below competitors, to urge repeated purchase and imprint the brand on this age group. "Pricing and price related promotions are among the most important marketing tools employed by tobacco companies" (Chaloupka, et al). Though this may be true in the introductory phase, future efforts should focus on brand image and availability as they are long term factors that affect buyers. The 35-55 age group is a tougher market. Smokers is this segment will likely have tried several brands. While price is a factor, taste and availability are the most important considerations. Market saturation, with placement of products in the most frequented retailers should be the main focus. Preliminary market research data suggests that our brand satisfies consumers at a moderately high level, within the 1-5 ratings system used. Availability is also important. Those established with families and careers often don't Have time to search for desired brands. Our research data also indicated that many in this segment frequent retailers located along routes to and from work. Proper distribution also improves brand recognition. "The marketer doesn't just need to tell people about the product, but also to ensure that it is priced, distributed and engineered correctly In this context, "correctly" means in a way that meets the needs of the customer" (Hastings, MacFayden &Eadie). Meeting the needs of customers in a relatively saturated market is difficult. However, opportunity exists for unique offerings that are generally provided by specialty tobacco companies. In Greece, tobacco use

Mktg 4580 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mktg 4580 - Essay Example DP 4, Naval Logistics, explains how we put into action essential logistic principles, functions, and fundamentals and how we utilize the resources of formal planning and logistic information support to achieve the crucial objective of equipped force readiness. Illustrating through the metaphor of a logistic channel, it enables the reader to specifically understand the entire process from the manufacturers shipping terminal to the end user. At the same time, Naval Logistics highlights that the term ‘naval logistics’ refers to much more than materiel. It is a multifaceted interlace of systems within systems, which comprises planning, acquirement, preservation, engineering and manufacturing support, training, shipping, amenities operations, and personnel support-backing up naval forces day and night, both in peace and war.  Logistics empowers our forces to accomplish the assigned roles with capability and credibility. The overall purpose and function of Naval Logistics is divided into four processes, altogether called as the science of planning and executing processes that provides needed products to achieve and sustain operational readiness (p.5). Logistic includes several interrelated and often overlapping functions and potentials and provides support at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels (pp.7-9). Application of the fundamental principles of Logistics such as responsiveness, simplicity, economy, flexibility, sustainability, survivability, and attainability, which act corollary to the principles of warfare, across the six broad functional area of supply, transportation, maintenance, engineering, health services and other services, when merged and equilibrated, would produce and deliver effective logistic support to our operating forces (pp.12-22). Furthermore, within each of the functional areas, an effective administration of the four elements of the logistic process such as, acquisition, distribution, sustainment, and disposition will contribute

Organisation and the people Essay Example for Free

Organisation and the people Essay How does Amnesty International persuade the reader to take an active interest in its organisation and the people it helps? You should consider the structure, organisation and layout of material; the content of the article; and the use of language and linguistic devices. I will be studying a double page spread charity advertisement, obtained from a magazine supplement of a Sunday newspaper. Being advertised is Amnesty International: a charity organisation, which is working worldwide for the release of prisoners of conscience, fair trials for political prisoners and an end to torture, extra-judicial executions, disappearances and the death penalty. By publishing the advert in a Sunday supplement, it is insured to have a very wide circulation. Furthermore, people will have leisure time on a Sunday to be able to sit down and read the whole article, which gives them a chance to become active. If it were printed on a weekday, people would not have had the leisure time to be able read the article and become an active member of Amnesty International. Prudently, this advert has been structured in such a way that it guides the emotional response of the reader as they read through the text. The article has been subdivided into four main sections: Sallays story; the story of Mary; Britains view of refugees; and how the reader can become active and help refugees. The separation of the material into clearly defined blocks of text is very effective, in that it aids the ease and speed of access. Also, by implicating the reader in blame, they are increasingly forced to get involved. The first thing you see when you look at the article is the picture of the woman. This picture draws the reader to the article by the various attributes. Immediately, you are drawn by the shock factor: a picture of a woman who has no hands. In addition, this is an extremely powerful picture, as it is visually emotive, which means that it plays on the readers emotions and generates the readers sympathy for the woman. After looking at the picture, you read the quote beside it, which personalises the article by giving Sallay an identity this makes the reader feel closer to Sallay, and maybe as if they even know her. The large caption reads DONT LOOK THE OTHER WAY. This is imperative, as it is a command to the reader not to turn away from people like Sallay. It forces them to read the article and take an interest. In the leading paragraph the shock factor is used again to inform the reader of the shocking statistic that, Every twenty seconds a refugee is created. This shows the reader how big the refugee problem is, causing the reader to want to read on, as they want to know how Amnesty International will help so many people. Towards the end of the paragraph, the first person plural pronoun us is used. This is very inclusive and involves us all, symbolising how it is everyones responsibility to help refugees. This is then emphasised by the final sentence in the paragraph: Yes, all of us. Sallays story starts off with the phrase, Sallay Goba is a grandmother. This personalises her, as one can I identify with her, as a grandmother. This is because weve all got or had grandmother, so by being a grandmother, we know that Sallays just an ordinary woman. It then goes on to tell of how her life was turned upside down, with a graphic description of the horrific events: the murders of her grandchildren, husband, and son-in-law, her attacking, when her hands were brutally severed. The sheer extent of tragedy suffered by Sallay, persuades the reader to take in interest in the people Amnesty International helps, as the reader feels compassion for Sallay. Also, the phrase, It would have been nice to think that if she had managed to reach Britain, we would have helped her, makes us question whether we would have helped her or not, with the impression given that we probably wouldnt have. This is because of the words, It would be nice to think, as they emphasise the fact that she would have probably been rejected by the British government, as the chance of us helping her is quite slim. Furthermore, once again the first person plural pronoun we is used, in order to make us feel that we are responsible to help people like Sallay. In addition, the negative attitude of the West towards refugees increases the readers level of sympathy, making them feel that if the government is not going to help them, it is up to us. Political buzz words, such as economic migrants and bogus asylum seekers are also used to show the typical British view of refugees, making them seem to be people who only come to England, in order to make some more money. Again, the imperative is used with the word listen, in order to force the reader to read on, so that Sallay being a victim can be stressed again. The paragraph ends with two very powerful rhetorical questions: Do you imagine that she enjoyed being driven from her home, alone, penniless and terrified? Did she ask for her hands to be hacked off? These stress the fact that what the government thinks of refugees is completely wrong, as it outlines the fact that refugees do not intentionally bring hardship and suffering upon themselves and that they honestly need our help. Hence, the reader feels that they have a responsibility to help them. The next section in the article is The Story of Marie, an Ordinary Woman. A second story of an individual refugee is used, in order to emphasise how many different ways different refugees suffer. Also, the second story acts as a comparison to the first story, as it shows what happened even when a refugee who suffered such hardship made it to England. The word ordinary is used to stress the fact that she is just like any of us, so we can relate with her. The first sentence is, Marie was a chemist. This illustrates the fact that she used to be normal, as she used to have a professional career, which most people in this country already do, or aspire to do. In addition, the word was outlines the point that Maries life is no longer what it used to be. As she was a chemist, the reader is told that she is an educated woman, who went to University, thus outlining how many of us can identify with her. This fact also breaks down the stereotype that all refugees are poor and uneducated. When describing her story extremely graphic and horrific language and imagery is used: When they assaulted Marie, her brothers-in-law intervened and were shot dead. Five or six soldiers took it in turns to rape Marie. She lost consciousness. This illustrates the sheer brutality of her experience. This is another example of the shock factor, which not only intensifies the readers compassion for the refugees, but also increases their desire to become an active member of Amnesty International. Furthermore, Marie is shown as a victim of the Home Office, who refused her asylum. This proved the point made earlier in Sallays story: that we wouldnt have helped her even if she had reached Britain, as we did to Marie, despite all her hardship and suffering. This gives the reader a reason for joining Amnesty International. They can make a change and help refugees like Marie gain asylum in this country. The war on refugees section focuses more on refugees in general rather than just on individuals. This is effective, in that it shows the suffering of refugees as a whole. A lot of emotive language, such as people who have lost everything and suffered unimaginable griefs is used, in order to keep the reader interested in becoming active. In addition, a quote from the public is used; Its really tragic, but its nothing to do with us. This shows how people in Great Britain reject refugees, as they feel refugees are not their responsibility. Immediately after the quote comes the phrase, So sorry, but it is. This symbolises how it is our responsibility to help these suffering people. This is then followed by facts, such as, People like Marie have a guaranteed right under the 1951 UN Convention on Refugees to seek refuge in a safe country, if they have a well-founded fear of persecution, which support the fact that refugees should be given asylum in this country. This reassures the reader that if they do join, they are truly fighting for a cause, which is backed up. Rhetorical questions, which are linked to these facts are then used: Was Maries fear well-founded, Should the British Government honour this commitment? This further stresses the points that refugees are the victims and they are justified in seeking asylum. The section ends with the syntactic repetition You decide. This is powerful, in that it is giving the reader a choice of whether it a cause worth fighting for or not. Also the word you stresses that its the readers responsibility. This last section leaves the reader with a strong message, creating a powerful impact. This ultimately persuades the reader to become active in terms of giving money to Amnesty International. A very powerful technique used is that of comparing the reader to the refugees, explaining how neither want hardship or suffering: Nobody wants to be a refugee, People dont want to be homeless any more than you do they dont want to be tortured, murdered or raped any more than you do. Throughout the final section, the pronoun you is used, which outlines that it is aimed directly at the reader, telling them that they are needed to help Amnesty International, explaining how they can join, and describing what they can achieve with their help. Imperatives are used again, in order to encourage the reader to act, such as the phrase, For heavens sake wake up and help them. In addition, emotive language is used again throughout the final section. The article ends with a personal appeal, which seems to be more of a plead for help. This is very personal and acts on both, the readers emotions and the readers wealth, in order to persuade even the reluctant readers to get involved. The subscription coupon is very conveniently placed at the end of the article. This aids the ease and speed of access for the reader, and as a result they will probably become active, as theirs is no hassle involved if it is placed just placed on the page. To conclude, I personally believe that if I had come across this advert in a Sunday supplement, I would have read it and if I had the means to, I would have become involved. I feel that this article is very effective in persuading the reader to take an active interest in Amnesty International, mainly because of the way that it plays on the emotions of the readers, in order to strongly get across the message of the suffering of refugees.

Free Essays - Importance of Creativity in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays

Importance of Creativity in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn What would you do if you were a young teenager traveling down the Mississippi River, not knowing where to sleep that night or find food for your next meal? That is the dilemma faced by Huckleberry Finn, and Huck always found a lot of trouble. When most people are in trouble they either take the easy way out and lie, or they use their creativity and wit. The protagonist of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain, uses more wit than most fourteen year old kids use in their lifetime. Whenever life hits Huck with a problem, he always conquers it by using awareness, cleverness, and insight. Before Huck starts his adventure down the river, he must fake his death to "escape" from pap. The first thing Huck did was to make sure that pap was far away before starting his getaway. At this point, many children of Huck's age would merely get in a canoe and head down stream, most likely getting caught the next day. Huckleberry Finn is smarter than that. Huck wanted to make sure that no one would come down the river looking for him, except to make his corpse rise. First, he collected all the supplies that he could find and loaded them into a canoe. After that, he went into the woods and caught a wild hog. He brought the hog in the Cabin, and slaughtered it, making sure that it left behind a pool of blood on the hard packed dirt ground. He disposed of the dead hog by throwing it in the river to float downstream. Huck also opened a sack of corn and left a trail leading to a shallow lake nearby. Before leaving the cabin, he filled another sack with rocks, and made a path toward the river. This was done to simulate the trail of the robbers dragging their bounty to the river bank. Huckleberry hoped that pap would think he was killed by a group of robbers that stole all his possessions. After using these tactics to avert any search parties, he floated down the river to Jackson Island. Huck made every attempt to make sure that he could sail down the river in Free Essays - Importance of Creativity in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays Importance of Creativity in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn What would you do if you were a young teenager traveling down the Mississippi River, not knowing where to sleep that night or find food for your next meal? That is the dilemma faced by Huckleberry Finn, and Huck always found a lot of trouble. When most people are in trouble they either take the easy way out and lie, or they use their creativity and wit. The protagonist of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain, uses more wit than most fourteen year old kids use in their lifetime. Whenever life hits Huck with a problem, he always conquers it by using awareness, cleverness, and insight. Before Huck starts his adventure down the river, he must fake his death to "escape" from pap. The first thing Huck did was to make sure that pap was far away before starting his getaway. At this point, many children of Huck's age would merely get in a canoe and head down stream, most likely getting caught the next day. Huckleberry Finn is smarter than that. Huck wanted to make sure that no one would come down the river looking for him, except to make his corpse rise. First, he collected all the supplies that he could find and loaded them into a canoe. After that, he went into the woods and caught a wild hog. He brought the hog in the Cabin, and slaughtered it, making sure that it left behind a pool of blood on the hard packed dirt ground. He disposed of the dead hog by throwing it in the river to float downstream. Huck also opened a sack of corn and left a trail leading to a shallow lake nearby. Before leaving the cabin, he filled another sack with rocks, and made a path toward the river. This was done to simulate the trail of the robbers dragging their bounty to the river bank. Huckleberry hoped that pap would think he was killed by a group of robbers that stole all his possessions. After using these tactics to avert any search parties, he floated down the river to Jackson Island. Huck made every attempt to make sure that he could sail down the river in

The impacts of Elvis Presley

The impacts of Elvis Presley can be divided into several groups. Firstly is the impact in terms of the amount of sales that he made. He made 6 hit singles, at the time he had only been going for 10 months. This is more that any artist would hope to get in their whole career. His popularity among the younger generations also helps to see the impact the he has made, someone noticed that there was a market for music aimed towards younger generations, so they set out looking for someone; this meant that he had no competition when he was released onto the market. Because of this the impact seemed a lot greater, there had never been anything like it. Among adults there was also outrage because it went against everything that they believed to be right and good. The outrage meant that it must be cool to like him so his popularity grew. He also had a long term impact in that it wasn't just the music. You could get toys and films, records and books. All of this added to the impact of him on U. S society. The next thing to consider is whether it was down to his music. Whatever anyone says it was clear that he had amazing talent; this doesn't mean that everyone liked him but everyone acknowledged that it had its place. He was deemed â€Å"A white man that can sing like a black man†, he was something different and in this time there was no one else like him. The amount of sales from his records also helps to give evidence supporting this. He made it to number to in the company's charts in a very short time shows how effective his music was. His unique dancing style meant that people were attracted to him. If they didn't like him they still watched to see what all of the commotion was about. The fact that he appealed to the younger generations was the main reason for his success. The media, in particular the TV meant that he was always in the public eye. When he went onto the Milton Berle show for the first time they managed to knock Sergeant Bilko off of the top ratings. Everyone watched because the children liked him and the adults just had to see this controversy. The fact that he was followed all through his service in the army meant that he was given allot of credit. They saw his every move and everything he did. This built a lot of credit for him even amongst the adults. Then when he left the army he went straight into a TV special with Frank Sinatra. This meant that he had never really left the public eye, because he was still popular enough to do TV specials. There are other things that helped though; firstly there was a huge gap in the market where teenagers were concerned. This meant that there were many opportunities to offer something for the teenagers and because there was nothing else there would be no competition. They also had a greater chance of any bands released for the teenagers being liked. Marketing also played a big role in his impact on society. The amount of money that went into selling him was incredible. Everywhere that a teenager went there was something to remind you of the â€Å"King† Posters, billboards and TV's shop windows. A third thing that would have helped his impact is the wealth of the US. After World War 2 they were the only country to make it out with a profit. Teenagers as a result were able to spend à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½7billion a year on clothes and records. This meant that there was allot of money available to spend. If people have this much money to waste as a country, the normal thing to do is spend it on something fashionable. The final thing that helped him to become so popular is the films that he stared in. There were so many of them and so many people went to see them, even if he was the worst actor ever and the plots were all the same. This meant that for the first time ever there were films specifically directed at the younger generation, adults didn't approve so the most sensible thing to do was to go and see it, if only to annoy the adults. So all in all there are there are many reasons why his impact on society was so great. I think that it can best be described as a combination of things. His films and TV specials all help towards making him popular, but I think that the thing to remember is people ultimately know him for his music. This is why I believe that his impact on society was so great. If you think about all of the other things, they only came because of the music, he was only found because he could sing.

Operational Analysis and Effectiveness Essay

Competition in a corporate world is becoming intense. That is why strategic plans for a business in order to advance from competitors should be given proper attention in a business. Operational Performance is one of the important areas in management that needs to be taken focus in a company. It is a complex task in handling the operations of the business. In a manufacturing company, the performance of its facilities can be measured through various parameters, considering the external constraints of the market and defining it to follow its strategy and vision. Performance is all about capability; it is about the future. In any business, operational performance is an important issue. In needs to be measured The focus of achieving results on useful products and services for customers inside and outside the organization is the major contribution of performance management. It emphasizes the objective not only implementing strategic plans but doing them in the most effective way as possible. (McNamara, 2007) The first thing that comes to our mind when we hear this term is the performance in terms of the manpower or basically, the performance of employees. However, performance management refers to the areas where man is involved. First, it focused on the organization. The different activities in a department are involved such as computer support, administration, sales, etc. , the processes that concerns the billing, budgeting, product development, financial management and other), the programs for employees such as implementation of new policies and procedures to provide safe workplace and training programs, the products or services to internal or external customers, the projects (automating the billing process, moving to a new building, etc. ) and the teams or groups organized to accomplish a result for internal or external customers. Critical outcomes and Its Cost In this field of management, there are several activities that can be problematic. These areas have huge impact on the whole system. Costs are involved direct or indirectly. The key areas for measurement that should be considered are the profitability, market performance, resource utilization and people performance. (Wright & Race, 2004) Other matters such as score cards, statistical process control and benchmarking. When performance reviews fail, performance management often conflicts with relationship management. Negative feedback doesn’t motivate; ignoring the subjective element in reviews undermines employee attitudes. (Simmons, 2003) Performance reviews often conflict with relationship management. Negative feedback doesn’t motivate, and ignoring subjective elements in reviews can undermine employee attitudes. In fact, Simmons says this primary tool designed to improve performance can, and often does, create the opposite of the desired and intended result. Instead, she suggests an alternative review system that takes into account the important emotional aspects. (Simmons, 2003) The core assumption of most performance reviews is that if you clarify the gap between current performance and desired performance that will drive improved performance. However, that’s not the case. Instead, reviews tend to amplify the quality of the personal relationship between boss and employee. (Simmons, 2003) Measurements are significant to provide analysis to a certain area that to be studied. These will give valid conclusions on the subject. It is important to find improvements and effectiveness of the activities. Design and Implementation of a Performance Measurement System The main reason for constructing a measurement system for the case organisation was to obtain a tool for developing the organisation. The purpose of the measurement system was to improve the circumstances and the organisation’s employees. In addition, the measurement system was designed for guiding the implementation of the strategy. While designing and implementing the performance measurement system, the special characteristics were taken into account. (Mettanen) In an operational unit, individual approach emphasizes on individual performance appraisal, goal setting, and feedback. Performance appraisal has been a subject of much interest to HRM researchers. Literally hundreds of articles have been written on the subject over the past few decades. Most of this effort has been devoted to characteristics of instruments and raters, with underlying goals to eliminate errors of bias, better understand performance-related information processing, and ultimately to improve rating accuracy. Research on performance management has included other individually-focused phenomena that may occur before, during, and after appraisal. These include planning processes and interventions designed to maintain or improve performance. For example, individual feedback and goal setting have both received much acclaim as ways to manage task performance. Characteristics including the specificity of feedback and the extent to which it includes both behaviours and outcomes, and the degree of goal difficulty have been especially associated with higher performance (Chhokar and Wallin, 1984; Kim, 1984; Locke et al. , 1981). The interconnectedness of goal setting and feedback has also been discussed. Tolchinsky and King (1980) and Bandura and Cervone (1986) proposed that the effect of feedback depends on the beliefs that such feedback generate and, specifically, on the goals that are set in response to feedback. A TQM-compatible Approach Under this approach, the activities are on direct supervision. Their reasoning was largely based on the problems discussed above and the degree of system contribution to variance in work performance. A system-oriented approach would be primarily oriented towards improving processes which affect the performance of all individuals within the system. For example, in a production area, workflow or other technological processes might be evaluated and then improved in such a way as to enhance the performance of an overall work unit. Forms of performance management which attempt to link individual- and unit level performance are consistent with a system-oriented approach and TQM philosophies. Such a linkage may be accomplished in two ways. First, in line with the work of TQM proponents performance management may focus on ways to evaluate and improve the work system. In essence, this involves an identification of the internal or external customers associated with a work unit and measures to determine the extent to which customers’ needs are being met. Group-level involvement is attained so that co-workers and management work together to determine potential chronic problems which may be causing performance variance within the system and low levels of performance in relation to customer needs. A second mechanism for linking individual- and unit-level performance is to focus performance management largely at the unit level in terms of appraisal and rewards. This would be in contrast to the more common existing practice of making fine distinctions among individuals when appraising and rewarding . Individual efforts in organizations must increasingly be integrated in a total group effort and output. This idea leads to conclude that the natural unit of analysis for appraisal in organizations should be the group rather than the individual. Although group level assessment raises potential problems associated with social loafing demonstrated how having group-level goals causes individuals to accept more difficult goals for themselves. Matsui et al. oncluded that by having group goals, members develop a sense of shared responsibility for the attainment of their individual goals. It was showed how membership in quality circles could increase the commitment and productivity of individual members. had argued earlier that the group could be used as a â€Å"medium of change† to ensure the control of individual behavior and performance. (Waldman) Corporate Performance Management methods intend to provide improved. Roles of Operations Manager The operations manager is in charge of the supervision of the operations within the system. First, there must be qualifications for the said job. Operations manager should develop strong analytical skills and a logical approach to problem solving. It is advisable for them to take additional courses in statistics and computer systems. The operations manager is in charge of a more technical side of business so he should know how to handle multiple situations and problems. And also he must be able to communicate with different types of people in various functional areas for him to implement his plans effectively on his subordinates. If he aims to reach the highest levels of operations management he must acquire a master’s degree (MBA). According to a survey to general managers at large, global business firms conducted by (Reilly & Reilly, 2002) , the performance system on their company can be described as the company strategy includes measurable goals that the company is trying to achieve ,the performance measures collected and communicated in the organization are useful to managers in running the business ,managers understand how effective measurement provides key support in the pursuit of corporate goals, an understanding of the consequences of performance results is communicated and understood and the current measurement system encourages behavior that is good for the organization. The methodology used to gather information on managers’ feeling about their performance measurement systems is a questionnaire administered to attendees of various executive education courses at the University of Michigan Business School. Respondents are mostly general managers at large, global business firms. Almost half come from countries other than the United States. The number, form and content of the questions have varied somewhat over the years, but the following conclusions represent a reasonable consolidation of the results. (Reilly & Reilly, 2002) Responding managers most strongly agreed with the following descriptions of their performance measurement systems as the company strategy includes measurable goals that the company is trying to achieve, the performance measures collected and communicated in the organization are useful to managers in running the business, managers understand how effective measurement provides key support in the pursuit of corporate goals, an understanding of the consequences of performance results is communicated and understood, the current measurement system encourages behavior that is good for the organization Survey respondents tend to agree strongly with the most general kinds of statements about performance measurement. Measures are seen as supportive of the business strategy. Managers are positive about the firms’ efforts to communicate measurement results, analysis and significance. They view measurement systems as an important contributing factor to the success of the firm. Responding managers most strongly disagreed with the following descriptions of their performance measurement systems as the complexity of the business is fully reflected in the detail and structure of the measurement system, the company understands and measures the specific aspects of value it creates for customers, investors, employees, suppliers, and other key stakeholders, the measurement system helps managers understand the interrelationships among business activities across all parts of the business, managers at all levels of the business measure and understand the extent to which their process activities contribute to creating value for stakeholders, performance standards are to a large extent determined from a comparison to external sources such as other divisions, competitors, or unrelated, world-class, benchmark companies. As managers get into thinking about their systems in greater detail, they become more negative about their performance measurement systems. They do not think their systems fully capture the complexities and subtleties of the operation of the firm. Interrelationships among measures are not made sufficiently explicit. The â€Å"line of sight† between measures of operating activities and the value-creation results for corporate stakeholders is unclear. Standards for measures are not externally-driven benchmarks. While managers are generally satisfied with the measurement culture, level of measurement understanding, and communication of measures and their consequences, they are less enthusiastic about the structure, content, and connectivity of their measurement systems. Why might this be the case? Three reasons stand out. First, managers support the concept of performance measurement because their experience has shown it to be a positive force in helping to achieve corporate success. The more one knows about measurement, the more open that person is in communicating results, and the more positive a person is about the role of measurement, the greater the chances of achieving the desired business outcomes. Ignorance, secrecy, and negativism regarding measurement are a sure recipe for failure. Second, managers who use measures on a regular basis understand the difficulties inherent in the performance measurement process. Sometimes, the thing being measured and the measure itself are one and the same. Cycle Time, Number of Units Produced, Number of Errors are examples. More often, measures are an imperfect specification of the underlying idea. Return on Assets is meant to comment on the efficiency of the use of capital, but assets are measured using the principles of accrual accounting and are thereby measured by historical cost, or perhaps, not at all. Third, managers know the shortcomings of their own systems. They are aware of the distortions that can be introduced through cost and asset allocations. They know there is a tendency to measure the things that are easy to measure, and to avoid measures that are more difficult. They have watched as others engage in activities that clearly hurt the firm but help a key measure, for example, avoiding value-creating investment because it would drive down Economic Value Added in the current period. Please ensure that measures at the individual level aggregate upwards to the organization level. If the business wants to increase sales or reduce unsafe behavior (Reilly & Reilly, 2002) Improving Performance Measurement Systems It is an indicator of how the business is operating. The key to improved performance measurement is the development of integrated performance measurement systems. Integrated systems are constructed around a unifying theme such as business strategy or value creation, and are concerned with measuring the critical aspects of the structure that links the activities of people and processes in the firm to the intended outcomes for the company’s stakeholders. Integrated systems embody the quality concerns of production, the customer satisfaction focus of sales and marketing, and the monetary discipline of accounting, among other corporate sub-systems. They use measures denominated by money, units, time, feelings and other expressions of actions and results. But they present all these dimensions as parts of a single, overall representation of all aspects of company activity. When there is need for a sub-system, measures are taken from the whole and applied to the part. Measures used in pay-for-performance schemes are selected from the complete structure in recognition of their ability to drive the desired behaviors and outcomes, and will probably be different for different parts of the company. Measures selected to represent the performance of a unit of the organization reflect the unit’s performance, the linkages between the unit and other organizational units, and the linkage between the unit and the firm as a whole. (Kaplan & Norton, 1992) The sophisticated structure of integrated performance measurement systems is highly beneficial to management, but it does not eliminate some of the basic difficulties of performance measurement. There is still the unavoidable disconnect between our desire to know the future and our ability to measure only in the past or present. Some of the things we measure today may have the power to give insight into the future, but future outcomes per se cannot be measured. It must also be recognized that businesses are highly complex organizations that offer far more opportunities for measurement than can effectively be employed by management. The challenge of reducing the required number of measures to a critical few will always be present. Finally, the relationships among measures denominated so differently defy mathematical representation. As a consequence, we must be satisfied with understanding rough approximations of the strength and direction of interactions among measures. (Kaplan & Norton, 1992) In spite of these difficulties, the benefits of measurement integration far outweigh the costs. A better measurement system helps align the actions of people in the organization to ensure they work together to accomplish the intended goals. A unified system facilitates the creation of a â€Å"single version of the truth†, which helps avoid conflicts and misunderstandings resulting from inconsistent data or inappropriate comparisons. Finally, an integrated system motivates individuals by conveying a sense of fairness and logic in the scorekeeping. Employees can seek to do their best knowing that the measurement system will accurately and impartially measure the contributions they make and the extent of their success.

Free Essays on A Change Of Thought

that Todd Beamer said to a fellow passenger of flight 93 before it crashed in a rural Pennsylvania. Him and the other passengers planned to over power the hijackers and gain control of the plane again. They did not achieve all of their intended plans but were able to save possibly thousands of people from death. This is an obvious example of the heroism in the 21st century. Due to the events of September 11 heroism has been something greatly publicized and appreciated by the whole country. Before September 11th modern heroism was usually thought of a person who was famous or influential. People such as movie stars, sports figures, or other people who appear to be special and amazing in some way. Once 9/11 happened peoples view point on heroes completely changed, and so did the ideas of what heroes do and accomplish. Now attributes of a hero are someone selfless, courageous, giving, companionate, and willing, instead of the idealistic attributes of hers prior to the attacks. Once real people were seen being much more heroic than any movie star or sports figure. They redefined the idea of a hero. Todd Beamer and the passenger of flight 93 are some of the modern heroes that came to light due to 9/11. The firefighters in New York became major heroes in the eyes of all Americans. They displayed all the characteristics of a hero on 9/11 and did it with out even hesitating. Rescue workers and civilians of 9/11 also displayed their abilities to be heroes. Most of the heroes in 9/11 hade to over come a stressful situation, not panic, all were all also in some immediate danger, weather it be their lives or the lives of others, they had a lot of responsibility. Another major attribute that mostly all of the heroes of 9/11 shares is the overwhelming amount of selflessness they have, many died trying to save others. Also in the modern world there are always... Free Essays on A Change Of Thought Free Essays on A Change Of Thought A Change of Thought â€Å"You ready? Ok, lets roll† were the famous words that Todd Beamer said to a fellow passenger of flight 93 before it crashed in a rural Pennsylvania. Him and the other passengers planned to over power the hijackers and gain control of the plane again. They did not achieve all of their intended plans but were able to save possibly thousands of people from death. This is an obvious example of the heroism in the 21st century. Due to the events of September 11 heroism has been something greatly publicized and appreciated by the whole country. Before September 11th modern heroism was usually thought of a person who was famous or influential. People such as movie stars, sports figures, or other people who appear to be special and amazing in some way. Once 9/11 happened peoples view point on heroes completely changed, and so did the ideas of what heroes do and accomplish. Now attributes of a hero are someone selfless, courageous, giving, companionate, and willing, instead of the idealistic attributes of hers prior to the attacks. Once real people were seen being much more heroic than any movie star or sports figure. They redefined the idea of a hero. Todd Beamer and the passenger of flight 93 are some of the modern heroes that came to light due to 9/11. The firefighters in New York became major heroes in the eyes of all Americans. They displayed all the characteristics of a hero on 9/11 and did it with out even hesitating. Rescue workers and civilians of 9/11 also displayed their abilities to be heroes. Most of the heroes in 9/11 hade to over come a stressful situation, not panic, all were all also in some immediate danger, weather it be their lives or the lives of others, they had a lot of responsibility. Another major attribute that mostly all of the heroes of 9/11 shares is the overwhelming amount of selflessness they have, many died trying to save others. Also in the modern world there are always...

What You Can Do With a Degree in Sociology

What You Can Do With a Degree in Sociology A lot of people take their first sociology course simply to fulfill a college requirement, not knowing much about the field before stepping into that first course. Soon after, however, many fall in love with the subject matter and decide to major in it. If this is you, you may be asking yourself, â€Å"What can I do with a degree in sociology?† Most people who think of themselves as sociologists or have the word sociologist in their job title have graduate training, but B.A.s in sociology apply the sociological perspective to a wide variety of jobs in such sectors as business, the health professions, the criminal justice system, social services, and government. What You Can Do With an Undergraduate Degree in Sociology As a strong liberal arts major, a B.A. in sociology provides several things: The undergraduate degree provides broad preparation for entry-level positions throughout the business, social service, non-profit, and government worlds. Employers look for people with the skills that an undergraduate education in sociology provides, like research, critical thinking, and analytic skills.Since its subject matter is intrinsically fascinating, sociology offers valuable preparation for careers in journalism, politics, public relations, business, or public administrationfields that involve investigative skills and working with diverse groups.Many students choose sociology because they see it as a broad liberal arts base for professions such as law, education, medicine, social work, and counseling. Sociology provides a rich fund of knowledge that directly pertains to each of these fields. What You Can Do With a Graduate Degree in Sociology With advanced degrees (M.A. or Ph.D.), the more likely it is that a job will have the title sociologist, but many opportunities existthe diversity of sociological careers ranges much further. Many jobs outside of academia do not necessarily carry the specific title of sociologist. These include the following, among others: Sociologists become high school teachers or faculty in colleges and universities, advising students, conducting research, and publishing their work. Over 3,000 colleges currently offer sociology courses.Sociologists enter the corporate, non-profit, and government worlds as directors of research, policy analysts, consultants, human resource managers, and program managers.Practicing sociologists with advanced degrees may be called research analysts, survey researchers, gerontologists, clinical sociologists, statisticians, urban planners, community developers, criminologists, or demographers.Some M.A. and Ph.D. sociologists obtain specialized training to become counselors, therapists, or program directors in social service agencies. Today, sociologists embark upon literally hundreds of career paths. Although teaching and conducting research remains the dominant activity among the thousands of professional sociologists today, other forms of employment are growing both in number and significance. In some sectors, sociologists work closely with economists, political scientists, anthropologists, psychologists, social workers, and others, reflecting a growing appreciation of sociologys contributions to interdisciplinary analysis and action. Updated by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

Persronal statment 672737 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Persronal statment 672737 - Essay Example While I did not succeed in repairing the watch that marked the inception of a desire that would later land me at the university studying electrical engineering. The career is as interesting as it is challenging. Dedication is a personality trait that best describes my personality. I set priorities and order my life based on the same. I developed my interest in electronics by overcoming the numerous challenges i faced in the course. I for example honed my skills in mathematics and physics two of the most vital subjects that influenced my suitability to pursue the course at the university. I did not like the two subjects from early in life. However, I dedicated my efforts in improving my grades with every exam. Eventually, I succeeded in the two subjects. My ability to develop interests in the two subjects typify he dedication and the effort I always invest in achieving my set objectives in life. I concentrate and remain faithful to my priorities until I achieve my set goals. I work best in a team. Teamwork is vital in enhancing productivity. I learnt the value of teams in my primary education when I developed interest in football. Teamwork would enhance the success of my team. Professionally, teamwork is vital since it pools various abilities and skills thereby improving the quality of the work. Additionally, one is likely to learn from colleagues. I therefore have effective interpersonal skills and communication skills capable of facilitating my interactions with others in the team. My diplomatic approach to issues and conflicts is always instrumental in resolving any conflict that may arise in teams. This enhances the efficiency of my teams. Additionally, I have good leadership qualities and have served in various leadership positions. I served as a prefect in high school. Furthermore, I was the captain of the football team in the school. The two leadership positions helped hone my leadership qualities. I am

Qustions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Qustions - Essay Example Therefore, it can be said that managers assume the key responsibility of the successful implementation of corporate GIS in an organization. In order to accomplish that, managers need to overcome the barriers and address the implications that result from the implementation. The following text discusses some of the implications of introducing the corporate GIS to an organization from a managers’ perspective. Many companies have conventionally invested quite a lot in different GIS resources that include but are not limited to software, hardware, and human resources. As a result of that, management has demanded tangible outcomes on the sum invested. Management in any organization expects to receive tangible outcomes from the implementation of corporate GIS. If the management does not acquire tangible outcomes soon, there is little likelihood for management of continuing its support for the corporate GIS. Many case studies have traditionally shown that many information systems expe rience such hurdles (Otawa, n.d.). Researchers like (Saarinen, 1987) have devised organization-wide solutions in order to meet the challenges associated with implementation of corporate GIS in the organization. ... In order to make the system effective with the corporate GIS, employees need to be trained on the use of GIS. To achieve that, it is required of the managers to arrange training programs for the employees in which they may be offered education about the use of GIS. In addition to that, managers need to work out the best time that is suitable for the on-job training from the duty hours available to them. Not just that, managers need to convince the top management and / or the owners to bear the expenses thus incurred. Education of the organizational staff is compulsory, though it consumes additional cost. With that, management who is already skeptical about the idea of implementation of corporate GIS in the organization becomes even more repulsive towards it. In addition to the lack of employees education as discussed above, Management also has to suffer from a lack of GIS data of sufficiently high quality. Although in recent years, there has been improvement in the availability of th e required GIS data for organizational use, though this does not essentially mean that the improved availability has also improved the accuracy of the data. Many of the GIS databases are outdated because they have not been updated on a regular basis. Other implications for implementing corporate GIS in organization for managers include but are not limited toâ€Å"(1) data inaccuracies – both spatial and attribute, (2) data conversion issues, e.g., digitizing and format translations, and simply (3) the lack of data necessary to perform routine job duties† (Otawa, n.d.). GIS can not be implemented on a higher level unless these concerns are addressed. All of these factors need to be taken into consideration and taken adequate measures for in order to gain maximum benefit from the systems

Human and Animal Interrelationships from Domestication to Present Term Paper - 2

Human and Animal Interrelationships from Domestication to Present - Term Paper Example Also, Romans relied on various provinces they had acquired after wars for agriculture yet most of their focus was on Italy which was quite suitable for a wide variety of crops (Jhonston 55-56). Also, many Romans during the era were fond of purchasing Italian crops. Furthermore, land ownership was the means to constitute a part of the aristocracy in Rome; the more land a person acquired to higher his esteem in society and politics was. Even the brave soldiers were allocated land as rewards for their services. Land was also the sole factor behind slave labor since men were enslaved to work of these fields. Thus, agriculture was the dominant factor behind every aspect of Roman life and the paper aims at exploring how the Romans farmed to understand their values more. In order to understand how the Romans farmed, it is significant to study the phases in which these Romans evolved. Back in the 5th Century, there were small pieces of land owned by families in Rome. However, by that time the technique of crop rotation had become popular and Romans were indulged in estates to further enhance their wealth. Furthermore, the interactions amongst Romans and other advanced nations like Greece had improved already which also contributed towards perfecting the agricultural techniques to reap better crops. During the early empire era, the agricultural practices in Rome were at its peak and there was immense efficiency in the crops yield. Studies indicate that farms in Rome can be classified in three different forms. Smalls farms constituted an area of 18-108 iugera while medium range farms were around 80 to 500 iugera in size. However, large estates constituted an area as large as 500 iugera (Jhonston 33-34). Thus, those peasants who owned small sized farms didn’t have the technology or the resources to earn a living via their lands. The wealthy land owners saw it as an opportunity and bought lands from the

Determinants of Effective Leadership

Determinants of Effective Leadership Leadership is the behavior of an individual when he/she is directing the activities of a group towards a shared goal. A leader is seen as someone who sets the paths in an effort to influence people to adhere to those paths. Leadership is an action and not just a position. It can be shown via different people in various situations. A person is not born to be a leader but cultured through the upbringing and environment. A leaders personal characteristics are also vital for the developments and motivations of the organizations. True leaders such as the teachers who illustrated that leadership is an action (teaching and leading the students) and not a position. Touching the lives and affecting the outcome of many different expectations, a teacher is the epitome of a leader. A leader has his or her own style of motivating the people in the organizations. A leader must find the best skills in order to provide directions, motivations and purposes. Effective leaders are flexible. Organizational Leadership Model The effective leadership influence is not the same for everyone. It depends on their ranks in the organization and abilities which are required in leaders. The three basic leadership roles identified: initiation, speech, and management. 1. Initiation Initiation refers to planned decision making on policy formulation or structural change. These vital decisions are the determinants of the organizations culture and mission. 2. Speech Strategic decisions and methods designed for implementation within the establishment. It includes adjusting or adding on to the present structure towards new policy demands. 3. Management Management is putting into practice the policies and measures that are available to maintain the operations of the organization efficiently. These three kinds of Leadership are naturally executed at diverse ranks in the company with different abilities and skills. The top level management would initiate new policies that involve a change in the businesss structure or understanding the companys mission. An understanding of the entire organization, culture, mission, vision and how it correlates with the external parties is mandatory for these top level individuals. They represent the organization and what the business stands for. Understanding the policy decisions and practicing them to the existing organization via utterance or speech is usually made by the intermediate-level managers. They must uphold a two-way point of reference by taking orders from the above management and adapting them for the lower groups of people in the organization. Type of Leadership Process Typical Organizational Level Cognitive (Knowledge) Affective (Emotion) Initiation: Change, creation and elimination of structure Top echelons System perspective Charisma Speech: supplementing and piecing out of structure Intermediate levels: pivotal roles Subsystem perspective: two-way orientation Integration of primary and secondary relations: human relation skills Management: use of existing structure Lower levels Technical knowledge and understanding of system of rules Concern with equity in use of rewards and sanctions EXHIBIT 16.1 Three Leadership Patterns, Their Location in the Organization, and Their Skill Requirements  [2]   The companys policies and procedures will be administered by the Lower-level supervisors. These personnel must possess both the technical knowledge and a clear perception of the organizations rules in order to be successful. They have to continually deal with issues such equity, rewards and punishments in leading others. Leadership plays a crucial role in an organization since it always makes the difference between effective and ineffective organizations. Leadership is when a person manipulates others to perform a task at their own will which they would not normally do. Leadership is a vital process to an organization and it can be deliberated on three different stages; i.e. the individual, group and organization. Analysis at the individual stage: the leadership studies have paid attention on the successful leader personalities. Behaviors of both formal and informal leaders are focused at the group level. The effectiveness of an organization is decided by the relations between the leader, follower and circumstances. The studies have caused an emergence of situational theories or contingency theories of leadership. In Search for Leadership An organized search for leadership qualities first began after the turn of the century. The requirements in selecting and training efficient leaders were emphasized during the World War I and the quarter century between World War l and World War II; numerous studies were made to examine the personal characteristics of good leaders. These studies are usually referred as characteristic studies since the primary goal was to classify the traits and personal characteristics of successful leaders. The diverse methods used to study these leadership traits could possibly be the reason in the irregularities of the results. The manner of studies was not consistent in identifying the leaders. A majority of the studies was in comparing efficient with inefficient leaders or leaders with non-leaders. Some were identified by external observers, others selected by the group by way of recommendation or voting, nominated by observers such as teachers while some were chosen because they are in a leadership status such as student-body president or team captain. The studies were also conflicting in the way they deliberated on the traits. Some traits were measured by mental tests; others relied on viewers to spot the traits they have seen while some depended on the persons to report their own personality traits. The trait studies were quite unsatisfactory as a whole especially since they had hoped to cultivate a measure of leadership that predicted leader effectiveness accurately. The spotlight on the leadership research moved because of the flimsy results, to contingency studies which investigated more than just traits of a leader. Numerous traits formed an important divergence in leadership effectiveness and they interrelated with other conditional variables to stimulate the effectiveness of the leader. Physical Behaviors Physical factors such as height, weight, physique, energy, health, and appearance are also examined in the studies. It was concluded that there is a relationship between the above features and leadership. Apparently leaders have the tendency to be taller, heavier, better fitness, greater physique, higher energy output and more attractive in appearance. For example, executives in insurance companies were taller than policyholders, bishops were taller than clergymen, university presidents were taller than college presidents, sales managers were taller than sales representatives and railway presidents were taller than station agents. However, these types of results were not always reliable and consistent. The results neither are too weak in general and not consistent to be effective in selecting leaders nor are they helpful for training functions since not much can be made to alter most of these physical traits. Intellect It was generally agreed that leaders are more intellectual than non-leaders and the relationship was shown in the various studies. The relationship could probably begin from the reality that leadership functions largely depend upon careful problem solving. All three leadership roles initiation, speech and management necessitate great mental ability. In general, it is safe to assume that leaders are more intelligent than non-leaders but the relationships are small. Many other variables other than intellect inspire leadership effectiveness. It was also suggested that leaders should not be too intelligent than the group because associates who are notably brilliant than others are rarely chosen as leaders since the other members tend to snub them. Individuals with high IQs are inclined to have different sets of vocabulary, networks and aspirations that would create communication and inter-relations problems. Leaders do extremely well generally at school/college/university and score better grades. It is important for effective leadership to know how to do things. Thus general and practical knowledge are essential. Some studies have revealed the positive relationship between general knowledge and leaderships ability. Characteristic Traits Only a partial of the characteristic traits seem to be related to leadership and most are not especially convincing. It was suggested that the average leader is more used to social displays, greater initiative, persistent, knows how to get things done, self-confident, displays greater cooperativeness and adaptability, and possesses greater verbal skills to facilitate communication.  [3]  Leaders were found to be more emotionally mature than non-leaders in the personality integration or emotional adjustment. It can be concluded that personal characteristics are related to leadership. Effective leadership does not depend on a mixture of personality traits only because situational variables are also important since they always decide whether a character was associated with effective leadership either positively or negatively. Leadership must be considered as an interface of three variables: leaders characteristics, subordinates and nature of the task. Many styles of leadership were defined as a result of the studies of leaders behaviors. One of the earlier studies compared three leadership styles: authoritarian democratic and laissez-faire. The finest researches on the styles of leadership are made together at the same time; i.e. The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan. The researchers acknowledged two leader behaviors that were similar although the investigations were conducted separately. These two dimensions of leadership have been to form an instrument, called the Managerial Grid  [4]  , that has been used for research and training. Authoritarian, Democratic, and Laissez-faire  [5]  Leadership The diverse political systems in the United States and Germany before World War II inspired studies of leadership which evaluated the effects of three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez faire. In the democratic leadership style, decisions were made by vote of majority; equal participation encouraged; criticism and punishment minimal. In the autocratic leader, the leader made all the decisions and others must follow the set procedures strictly. In the laissez-faire leader, there was minimal actual leadership and others were permitted to work and play as usual without proper directives. Initiating Structure and Consideration The two leadership factors were initiating structure and consideration in which consisted of leadership behaviors associated with organizing and defining the work, the work relationships, and the goals. A leader who has structure assigned people to do specific jobs, expected workers to follow set routines and meet deadlines. The consideration factor is showing friendship, mutual trust, warmth and concern for subordinates. Production-Centered and Employee-Centered Leader Behaviors Production centered behaviors were akin to initiating structure in which leaders would establish targets, gave directives, checked on operations and planned the group Employees work. Centered behaviors were similar to the considerations dimension in which the leader would develop a caring personal relationship with the subordinates and encouraged a two-way communication with them. The relationship between production-centered and employee centered behaviors are found to be independent scopes of leadership. A leader with strong production orientation does not mean that he is disinterested in the employees. Managerial Grid  [6]   A conceptual framework combining a concern for task accomplishment and a concern for people was created by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton called the Managerial Grid. Blake and Mouton assumed that the most effective leadership style is demonstrating both concern for production and concern for people. There are leaders primarily more concerned with accomplishing the production and task not concerned about people. This person wants the job done and schedule followed at all costs. There is also individual who is not concerned whether the group produces anything but concerned more about the members personal needs, interests and inter-personal relationships. An ideal leader wants to meet schedules and get the job done but at the same time is highly concerned about the feelings and interests of the group members. The Managerial Grid  [7]  is popular among managers. It is used extensively as part of a training program to assess their leadership style. However, the effectiveness of the Managerial Grid is not consistently supported. The burden of the situation, expectations of other group members and nature of the work performed interact in complicated ways that call for a variety of leadership styles. The leadership style is not always the most effective. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP The effectiveness of the different leadership styles must be combined with different organizational factors to assess their effect effectiveness. Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed a situational leadership model that combined three variables: (1) the amount of guidance and direction (task behavior) a leader gives; (2) the amount of emotional support (relationship behavior) a leader provides; (3) the readiness level (maturity) that follows, exhibit in performing a specific task or function Four potential leadership styles are created by combining different amounts of task and relationship behaviors. S1: Telling Give instructions and supervise performance closely. Suited for followers who are unwilling but of low maturity. S2: Selling Decide and provide opportunity for explanation. Appropriate for followers who are not able but willing. S3: Participating Sharing ideas in making decisions. Suited for followers who are able but not willing. S4: Delegating Responsibility handed over for decisions and performance. Appropriate for groups who are able and willing. Contingency Theory of Leadership The interaction of the leadership style and the situation. Fiedlers major contributions consist of: (l) identifying the leadership orientation of the leader and developing a way to measure it; and (2) identifying three situational factors influencing leadership and developing a method of measuring them. Leader Orientation Leaders were identified as either relationship-oriented or task-oriented. Relationship-oriented: look at others as coworkers and see close interpersonal relations as a requirement for accomplishing the task. Task-oriented: show a strong emotional reaction against people with whom they have difficulty working. Situational favorableness (1) whether the relationships between the leader and the members are good or bad; (2) the task is relatively well planned or not; and (3) the leaders authority is relatively strong or weak. The second most important situational variable was the task structure which was evaluated by judges who examined four aspects of the task structure. Clarity: which the requirements of the job are clearly stated, Multiplicity: which the problems encounter can be solved. Verifiability: which the correctness of the decisions can be ascertained. Specificity: which there are generally more solutions involved in performing the task. Group effectiveness Relationship-oriented leaders excel in situations of intermediate favorableness where concern for the group members is apparently a necessary prerequisite for motivating them to perform well. In these situations, people want to have leaders who care about them. Task-oriented leaders however are more effective when the situation is either very favorable or very unfavorable. impossible situation. Path-Goal Model Directive leadership: subordinates are told what to expected and specific guidance, standards, and schedules of work provided. Supportive leadership: subordinates are treated equally and concern for their well- being, status, and personal needs; develop pleasant interpersonal relationships among the group members. Achievement-oriented leadership: challenging goals are set and subordinates are expected to perform at their highest level, improvement in performance always. Participative leadership: subordinates are consulted on suggestions and ideas in making decisions. Situational factors Situational factors-the characteristics of the follower and environmental factors. Three characteristics of the followers have been identified as significant variables determining the appropriate leadership style: (1). Locus of control: Internal believe their rewards are based on their own effort. External believe their rewards are controlled by external forces. (2). Authoritarianism: an individuals willingness to accept the influence of others. (3). Abilities: The followers ability and experience influence a leader whether they are able to work with an achievement oriented leader or a supportive leader who patiently encourage and instruct them. The path-goal model identifies three environmental factors moderating the effects of leadership styles: the nature of the task, the formal authority system within the organization; and the group norms and dynamics. These environmental factors can influence the effectiveness of different leadership styles in a variety of ways. Normative Decision-Making Model of Leadership The normative decision-making model is a contingency theory of leadership. It does not assume any leadership style as appropriate for all situations. Leaders must develop a range of leadership styles and take on the style that is most appropriate to the situation. Leaders need to know when to consult others and when consultation is a waste of time. Although the leader may serve as the chairman of the group, the leader is simply one of the groups and does not try to influence the group to adopt a particular solution. Criteria for selecting a leadership style. The criteria used for assessing the efficiency of a leadership style: quality and acceptance. The quality of the decision refers to its accuracy and the extent to which it will achieve some objective. The quality of decisions depends on accurate and relevant information Conferring with other group members often provides additional information. Diagnostic decision rules. Managers choose the most autocratic of the styles to save time and minimize costs. If the aim was to further the subordinates personal development, the participative style is selected. In some strategies, the manager decides alone. At times, the manager makes the decision alone after consulting with the subordinates as an advisory group. Comparing the leadership models. All situational leadership models contribute to our understanding of the leadership by emphasizing the effect of external factors on a particular leadership style. Different leadership styles suggest styles that are determined by various situational factors. The models focus on different methods: different situational factors and different criteria for selecting the best style: task-oriented versus relationship-oriented. The four leadership styles: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented The normative decision-making model identifies three leadership styles: autocratic, consultative, and participative. The situational factors influencing the effectiveness of leadership are quite different in each of the models. An important reason for some of this difference is that the normative decision- making model equates leadership with making decisions and looks at only this function of leadership. In addition, the models use rather different criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of leadership. DETERMINANTS OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS Although deciding what makes an effective leader seems as if it should be a simple decision, however, individuals who are in the positions of leadership are faced with the practical question of deciding which leadership pattern to adopt. Choosing a Leadership Style One of the most popular models for selecting an appropriate leadership style is one that describes a variety of leadership styles along a continuum from highly autocratic to highly participative at the other. The forces in the situation include the culture of the organization. The successful leader is one who is aware of the situational forces and responds accordingly. Effective leaders must understand themselves, the group, company and social environment. Strategies for Improving Leadership Leaders capacity to reward the behavior of followers should not be overlooked and the ability of the followers responds otherwise. For example, organizations reward managers according to the performance of their group. As a result, the managers of high- performing groups are highly rewarded by the organization. Leaders who were more considerate created greater satisfaction among their subordinates; at the same time, changes in the behavior of the leaders could be caused by the performance of the subordinates. Constraints on leader behavior. Leaders have limited opportunities to influence others. Leadership effectiveness is inhibited by a variety of factors. For example the extent managerial decisions are pre-planned due to structure, technological specifications, laws and the absence of available alternatives. Leadership can also be forced by a variety of organizational factors limiting the leaders capability to either communicate with or to reinforce the behavior of the subordinates. The constraints imposed on leaders include external factors organizational policies, group factors, and individual skills and abilities. External factors. Leaders are constrained in what they can do because of various economic realities and a host of state and federal laws. Leaders who have unskilled followers will have difficulty leading irrespective of their leadership style. The availability of skilled followers is subjected to the external labor market. Organizational policies. The organization may limit a leaders effectiveness by hampering the amount of communication between leaders and followers and restricting the leaders ability to reward or punish followers. Group factors. Created by the dynamics of the group. If the group is highly unified and determined, it can limit the leaders ability to influence the group. Individual skills and abilities. The leaders own skills and abilities may act as constraints since leaders can only possess so much expertise, energy, and power. Some situations may simply require greater skills and abilities than the leader may possibly hope to possess. Substitutes for leadership. While some situations constrain leaders other situations make leadership unnecessary. These variables are referred to as substitute variables because they substitute for leadership either by making the leaders behavior unnecessary or by neutralizing the leaders ability to influence subordinates. Leadership is an extremely important function. It has an enormous influence on the value of groups and organizations. The complexity of the situation, however, may prevent us from knowing in advance which will be the most effective leadership behaviors. SUMMARY 1. Leadership refers to increasing influence which occur when an individual manipulates others to do tasks voluntarily which they would not do otherwise. The basic leadership roles include initiation of policy and structure, speech, and management. A need for leadership within organizations stems from the incompleteness of the organization design and the dynamic nature of the internal and external environments. 2. The studies of leadership were mainly studies on traits that tried to identify the characteristics of effective leaders. The studies focused mainly on physical traits, intellect and characteristic. The results were usually weak and inconsistent although some personal characteristics were always related to leadership. Most studies concluded that the characteristics of the subordinate and the nature of the task were as important as the characteristics of the leader in determining success. 3. Another approach to studying leadership set on leader behaviors; i.e. how leaders actually behave. One of the studies compared three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire. Although democratic leadership produced the greatest satisfaction, autocratic leadership had the highest levels of productivity. 4. Research conducted simultaneously at two universities identified two similar leadership behaviors. At The Ohio State University the researchers labeled these two leader behaviors initiating structure and consideration. At the University of Michigan the same two factors were labeled production-centered and employee-centered leader behaviors. These two leader behaviors appear to identify leadership functions essential to the effectiveness of a group. The two Factors have been used to form a matrix called the Managerial Grid which places a concern for production on one side of the grid and concern for people on the other. The research evidence does not support this conclusion consistently. 5. The unsuccessful research to identify leadership traits or universally superior leader behaviors caused an emergence of development of four situational theories of leadership. The theories suggest that the most effective leadership style depends upon situational variables particularly the characteristics of the group and the nature of the task. 6. A situational leadership model that matched different combinations of task behavior and relationship behavior with the maturity of the followers. As the followers increase, the appropriate leadership style is telling, selling, participating, and finally for highly mature followers, delegating. 7. The most appropriate leadership style was determined by assessing three situational variables: whether the relationships between the leader and the members were good or poor, the task was structured or unstructured, and the power position of the leader was strong or weak. When these three situational variables created an extremely favorable or extremely unfavorable situation, the most effective leadership style was a task-oriented leader. However, where there were intermediate levels of favorableness, a leader with a high concern for interpersonal relationships was more effective in these situations. 8. The path goal model theory is derived from expectancy theory. It suggests that effective leaders must clarify the target paths and increase its attractiveness for followers. Four distinct leadership styles are proposed in the model: directive, supportive achievement-oriented and participative leadership styles. The style most appropriate depends upon two types of situational factors: the characteristics of the follower and characteristics of the environment. Three of the most important follower characteristics include the locus of control, authoritarianism, and personal abilities. The three environmental factors include the nature of the task, the formal authority system within the organization, and the group norms and dynamics. 9. The three leadership styles include autocratic decision making, consultative decision making, and group decision making. The decision titles determining which style is most appropriate include such questions as whether the leader has adequate information to make the decision alone, whether the subordinates will accept the goals of the organization, whether subordinates will accept the decision if they do not participate in making it, and whether the decision will produce a controversial solution. 10. The influence of the group upon the leader should not be overlooked. The relationship between the leader and the group implies a reciprocal influence. Groups have the capacity to influence the behavior of their leaders by responding selectively to specific leader behaviors. The influence of a leader can also be constrained by several external factors, such as organizational policies, group norms, and individual skills and abilities. Other variables have been found to neutralize or substitute for the influence of a leader, such as the skills and abilities of followers and the nature of the task itself. POSITIONING ON LEADERSHIP CRISIS There are many leadership theories. Arthur G. Jago (1982)  [8]  had proposed a framework that organizes leadership theories based on each theorys focus and approach. Focus refers to whether the leadership is seen as a set of traits or actions. There is a universal formula of traits or behavior for an effective leader. However, effective leadership also depends on specific situations. The kinds of behaviors that leaders can actually perform in a group. The two leader behaviors that have been consistently observed including task-related activities, called initiating structure or production-centered activities, and interpersonal relations activities, sometimes called consideration or employee-centered activities. The incremental influence that one individual exerts upon another and that causes the second person to change his or her behavior voluntarily. Three leadership roles include origination of the structure by top-level managers, interpolation or adapting the structure by middle-level managers and administration or implementation of the policies and procedures by lower-level supervisors. I concur with A. Ange on the presence of leadership crisis but I also foresee the resolutions taken and are still being taken to resolve the problem. Many organizations are spending money in sending their employees to be groomed and trained for future growth of the company whereby they are exposed to different methods of management and how to be great leaders. Leaders are born to leaders but in some circumstances, situations and environments also play a huge role in creating a leader. Leaders come and go and new ones are always on the threshold to take over the empty space. The qualities of the leaders and their leadership styles vary but they are vital in the development and motivation processes of the organizations. There is